Cultural and relational factors in interpersonal distance regulation: evidence from a 2D screen-based task in Spain, Italy, and Japan

Interpersonal distance regulation varies across cultural contexts and individual relational orientations, yet its determinants in digitally mediated social environments remain insufficiently understood. This cross-sectional, cross-cultural study examined associations between early child-rearing practices (co-sleeping and co-bathing), adult attachment-related dimensions (anxiety and avoidance), perceptual sensitivity to visual context, and tolerance for interpersonal proximity in a controlled 2D screen-based task. A total of 305 adults from Spain, Italy, and Japan completed self-report measures, including the Experiences in Close Relationships scale, as well as three computerized tasks: the Ebbinghaus illusion, the Müller, Lyer illusion, and a personal-space judgment task involving various humanoid figures. Japanese participants reported higher prevalence and longer duration of co-sleeping and co-bathing, higher attachment-related avoidance, and greater tolerance for interpersonal closeness in the 2D task, whereas Spanish and Italian participants preferred larger interpersonal distances. Cross-cultural differences also emerged in susceptibility to visual illusions. Bivariate associations suggested links between early caregiving practices, attachment-related avoidance, perceptual sensitivity, and personal space preferences; however, these associations were substantially attenuated after adjusting for cultural context and demographic variables. Overall, the findings indicate that interpersonal distance regulation in screen-based contexts is more strongly associated with cultural norms than with early caregiving practices or adult attachment orientations, while perceptual processes intersect with social regulation in culturally patterned ways, suggesting that norms of interpersonal closeness may not translate directly from face-to-face interactions to screen-based settings.